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a single sand-drift nor patch of bare ground. It is only the lack of wells and popula- tion, the latter depending on the former, which makes the Gobi a desert.
Were the Mongols energetic enough to dig more wells the country could bear a much larger population.
The cause of the presence of sand-drifts in the one and the absence of the same in the other is another point of contrast, namely, the prevalent winds. In both these blow for the greater part from the north-west, and are in both equally violent. The sand- drifts of the Ordos have doubtless been formed by the sand which through countless centuries has been blown across from the dry bare sands of West Gobi. The East Gobi, sheltered on the north-west by high ranges of mountains, has remained immune.
Were the prevalent winds to change and to blow west instead of north-west, the East Gobi would share the same fate as the Ordos. In the latter the wind is accompanied by dust and small stones to such an extent that the atmosphere while the wind lasts is intensely disagreeable for man and beast, often blinding both temporarily. In the Gobi this is absent. The next point of contrast, the amount of low scrub and vegetation in the Ordos, as against nothing in the Gobi above the height of a blade of grass, has doubtless been caused by the formation of the land, in the Ordos low sand-hills, in the Gobi gently rolling-downs. The valleys and hollows formed by the sand hillocks give a sufficient shelter from the wind, while in the Gobi the same wind sweeps over the face of the country so violently that nothing escapes its force. Out of this arises the contrast between the two regions as sporting countries. The Ordos coverts team with hares, pheasants, and game of all kinds; the Gobi has no shelter for such, and only such animals as deer, wolves, and foxes can roam there.
A point of difference which is interesting is that, though both districts are beds of ancient inland seas, the Ordos exudes alkaline salts everywhere, and usually very thickly, while in only one place in the Gobi did I see this, and then only faintly. I certainly expected to find it in some of the shallow valleys where there were small lakes and coarse grass, or where had been lakes of recent date. Such places in the Ordos were white with salt; in the Gobi it is conspicuously absent.
As regards the population there are also these points of contrast: (1) that of the Ordos seems to be less nomadic; their yourts are evidently establishments of some years' standing; (2) the ordinary people appear to be more wealthy and their yourts better appointed; this probably arises from their more settled state and also from the fact that no Chinese moneylenders infest the country (possibly the difficulty of access is the cause for this deliverance), and from the fact that they have nearer markets for their wool and hair.
There are without doubt numerous other points of contrast, but the above are some which first strike the casual traveller,
Changes in Administration,
Any changes which have been effected, or which the Chinese Government desire to effect in the administration of Mongolia may be said to be the outcome of a couple of centuries of Chinese immigration, and the recent adoption by the Central Government of that policy in the north also.
Formerly the outer Great Wall formed the boundary line between China and Mongolia, but the Manchus having successfully ousted the Mings (1644) and having become heirs to the vast Mongolian possessions of the latter, and the Manchu yoke having been peaceably accepted by the Mongols, the energetic Chinese of Shansi and Chih-li, tempted by the fertility of the soil in those Mongolian districts at their very threshold, encroached en their neighbours, renting or buying their land and cultivating it.
With the advance of the Chinese the Mongols receded, partly because they disliked any contact with civilization, and partly because the pasturage for their vast flocks and herds was interfered with by the wheat and kaoliang fields of the invaders, who in their turn resented the damage done to their crops by the wandering caunels and other beasts.
Thus the whole plain of Kweihuasheng became entirely populated with Chinese right up to the foot of the mountains (6 miles to the north of that town) which form the step on to the Mongolian plateau, so that the Mongols were driven either on to the plateau or westward into the strip of Mongolia which lies in the Yellow River valley between the mountains of Mongolia and the river.
The Kweihuacheng plain and the country to the Yellow River, as far as and including Salatsi, then became incorporated in the Province of Shansi.
The ware of Chinese immigration, having engulfe1 Kweihuacheng, spread in two
directions, northwards on to the Mongolian plateau, and westwards from Salatsi along the Yellow River, in either case the Mongols retreating before it.
The northern wave may be said to have reached its limit, I think, for there has been little advance along this line for at least thirty-six years. I am of opinion that any expansion that occurs will be cast and west of Kokoillikung, in the former case linking up with the vast tracks of Mongolia north of the Province of Chih-li which Chinese immigrants have opened up, and which have gradually been incorporated in that province. All immigration during those years has been towards the Yellow River strip, and it is there that the Mongols are now feeling the pressure, for a large portion of the land up to the Alashan frontier has been opened up, and the rest will, without doubt, follow suit. The fertile portion of Alashan has met with a similar fate and a large number of Chinese farmers have flocked there, while the population of the only place which can be called a town, i.e., Dengkou, is entirely composed of Chinese residents and traders. The stream of immigration then flowed southwards towards the fertile Ninghsia plain, and numerous Chinese farms may be met with along that portion of the Alashan Kingdom.
Thus, even if left to itself, the immigration would as surely swallow up the whole of the Yellow River strip as it has already engulfed Kweihuacheng.
Of recent years it seemed good to the Chinese Government to utilize this more. ment as far as possible, and to hasten the opening up to cultivation of Mongolia, by encouraging and promoting immigration with a view to strengthening their hold thereby over the distant dependencies.
The adoption of this process as a definite policy cannot date from very far back, probably 1902, and was, I venture to think, due to a fear lest a similar fate, which at that time seemed to be impending over Manchuria, should overtake Mongolia, and also to prevent the pledging to foreign banks, by the small Princes, of their lands or minerals. Thus in 1902 au energetic Chiangehün (or Tartar General) was sent to Kweihuacheng with instructions to hasten up the opening up of Mongolia. These, however, he obeyed only too well, and acting in an arbitrary and overbearing manner, came into conflict with Chinese and Mongols alike, a conflict which has ended now in his disgrace. One of the measures taken by him was to establish in various centres bureaux or land registry offices for the purpose, and no steps seem to have been left undone by him to carry out his instructions. One of these seems to have been to extend the process to the Ordos tribes.
The Ordos tribes consist of a confederation of seven Mongol Shepherd Kings who rule in a patriarchal manner over their seanty population. While the Chiangchün at Kweihuacheng supervises them they enjoy the same measure of independence as the other Mongol Princes to the north of the Yellow River.
The Chiangchun, in pursuance of his instructions, invited these Shepherd Princes I have been unable to discover whether sale or to cede or sell their lands to the State. cession was invited, but as the rights of the Mongols to the land have been often recognized by the Chinese Government, and as the sale of small portions has sometimes occurred, it may easily have been so in this case also. It must have been a tempting offer to the impecunious and extravagant Princes, but they seem to have been uncertain what course to follow. Talat is said to have ceded all his land, and also Wushin, but the other Princes wavered and tried to compromise. The action of the Princes of Talat and Wushin irritated not only their own subjects but also all the other Ordos Mongols to a high degree, and the subjects of Wushin have started a boycott of their chief; they have left his capital, have refused to work for him or in his yamên, or to tend his beasts; there were only two Mongols in the encampment at the time of my visit, both relatives of the Prince, who had himself gone away to the tribal temple on business. The Mongols claim that the land belongs to them, that their Prince has no light to cede or sell it without their consent, and state that if the Chinese are going to be masters of the country and their district turned into a province they will have to pay taxes to the Chinese, in which case they have no time nor desire to work for his Highness.
At Borobalgasson I heard that in view of the attitude of the tribes the Chinese Government had dropped the whole question, and this information was confirmed by the Duke of Alashan.
In the meantime, however, the Chiangchiu at Kweihuacheng had got into serious trouble. He had coolly executed a small Mongol official who had remonstrated with him for his attitude towards the Mongols. This high-hauded action was the last straw, and the Peking Government were obliged to take notice of the repeated complaints of Chinese and Mongols alike. They sent a special officer down to Kweihuacheng to
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